Gravid females preferentially associated with T males, whereas non-gravid females showed no preference. To discover whether gravid females use male size independent of dominance status as a cue for their choice, gravid females were given a choice between territorial males of different sizes. Gravid females preferred the smaller of two T males, but the smaller T males were significantly more active. Our results show that associative change could be an important behavioral mediator between hormonal cues and reproductive success, and that females use a hierarchy of cues in decision-making, preferring to affiliate with T over NT males and, among T males, preferring more active animals. It is often assumed that females choose males displaying the most exaggerated sexual traits-whether behavioral, morphological, or material, such as food and shelter.

However, more factors may also contribute importantly to female mate choice decisions. A wide range of subtle and complex external factors have been shown to influence female choice, suggesting sophisticated integration of cues by females. Less well understood are the physiological substrates that are likely also crucial for successful female reproductive choice. Genetic and epigenetic factors, circulating hormones, and learned behavior can contribute to a female's final mate choice.

In particular, potential mediating effects of circulating peptide and steroid hormones on mating behavior have been described for some species (see Argiolas, 1999 for review).

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